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It is stated in the passage that embarrassment and shame are difficult subjects to study as most of the research is based on ----.
Do people everywhere experience embarrassment in
the same way? This is a difficult question to address
empirically. Most cross-cultural research has focused
on people’s self-reports of their experiences, feelings
and expressions, which may or may not correspond to
what actually happens in social interactions. Another
tricky issue is how to translate terms for emotions into
different languages. In English, there are separate
terms for shame and embarrassment, and research
suggests that the two emotions are different.
Embarrassment tends to be over less serious errors
and almost always happens in the presence of others.
Shame seems to be reserved for more serious social
violations and can be experienced alone. Smiling, which
readily occurs in embarrassment, is unlikely to follow a
shameful event. However, the boundary between
events that elicit embarrassment or shame is undefined.
In many cultures, the same word is used to describe
both. For example, in Oriya, a language in India, the
word “lajya” refers to a variety of emotional states,
including embarrassment as well as shame. Many
Asian languages also use one word for the two
emotions, although some Asian cultures have multiple
words that deal with saving face, shame and so on.