Mr. Johnson teaches English at a prestigious high
school at a metropolitan area in which parents closely
monitor what teachers do to help students pass
high-stakes examinations that deeply impact their
prospective life and career choices. However, these
examinations fail to test all of the four skills. Therefore,
Mr. Johnson usually finds himself caught in a dilemma
about whether to teach for tests by sticking rigidly to
exam-format activities intended to improve only
receptive skills and vocabulary or use a range of
activities to develop all four language skills
simultaneously.

Which of the following testing-related concepts
could be cited as the reason for Mr. Johnson’s
instructional dilemma?